French Belt or Butcher Knives

Typical French "Boucheron" knife from the John Painter Collection. Most likely dating between 1700-1760. (Notice the "crown"," upside down glass/bottle/mallet" and the DORON name stamped on the blade)

Ned Jalbert Collection : Iroquois Effigy Knife Circa : 1780. Could this be a Doron knife?

Introduction

A sheath or belt knife was one of the most important tools or accoutrement of the "coureur des bois", voyageur, indian and was included as a standard item issued to the Canadian militia in New France. They were generally used for many purposes such as cutting, carving (tool) and served as well as a weapon when necessary. Knives were among the most popular and widespread items of trade in North America. The first known European artifact given to an Indian in Louisiana was a knife presented to a chief of the Natchez by Henri de Tonti on March 26, 1682. Gifts from the Louisiana Indians in 1701 and 1703 included 20 gross of "butcher knives" at an average of 23 livres a gross.

Steve Delisle states in his book "The Equipement of New France Militia" : "...clear documentation exists on the way canadiens used the boucheron. A novel published in Paris in 1732 tells of "the knife that people carry in the garter in these countries". J.-C. B. says that canadiens do as the Indians, that "they go to war equipped with guns, tomahawks, and knives. Usually three knives; one hanging about the neck, one in the sash and one along the leg, outside, in the garter". Jean-Baptiste D'Aleyrac noted that the knives canadiens received, when going to war, had wood handles."¹

Although various trade knives have been found in many French archeological contexts, there are in fact various other types of belt knives. Charles Garrad, Administrator of the Petun Research Institute and renowned historian/archeologist has published an incredible article on the various early French iron knives found on Petun sites during the first half of the 17th century (IRON TRADE KNIVES ON PETUN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES). This incredible article gives us a general overview of the very early trade knife types that were most likely traded with other tribes in and around the Great Lakes at the time including the Hurons and Ottawas.

Above : Charles Garrad's Petun Knife Types (arrow. Indicate diagnostic elements). Notice the type "3" knife which is a flat Bladed Knife with Pronounced Heel also termed "Stemmed Knife with Pronounced Heel" (Garrad 1969:4,8). This type is very similar to the "boucheron" type knife. (Permission from C.Garrad to reproduce image)

The one iron knife type that concerns us in this section is the typical French "boucheron" knife, which is translated to "butcher knife". Judging from the occurrences of the the French "Boucheron" knife, it seemed to have been a very popular and widespread tool and weapon and not only for the trade.

Watercolor by Alexandre de Batz, 1730's, showing two Choctaw warriors, allies of the French, painted for war and holding trophy scalps. This includes a Choctaw chief at the top right carrying a powder horn and knife on his belt.

Above : Take note of the belt knife that the Choctaw warrior has hanging from his belt. This could very well be a "boucheron" knife given by the French. Notice as well that the artist included what seems to be a maker's mark on the blade.

The "boucheron" knife exhibits a straight, slightly tapering blade back and a blade edge which tapers at the tip. The handle shaft is a projection of the blade back and has two pin holes for attachment to the handle. The width of the tang seems to thin out near the butt which is typical of any blacksmith made knife unlike the much later stock steel blades which do not exhibit this feature. The blade is fairly thick and sturdy unlike the later British type blades that display thinner blades.

This type of knife was most likely manufactured in St.Etienne, France along with trade clasp knives. We are eagerly awaiting data from the St.Etienne museum to provide us with a copy a lead table with knifemaker's marks from Saint-Etienne area dating to 1737. Below is an unclear low grade copy of the plaque itself. Notice the 2nd and 3rd mark from left, middle row. We are hoping these are in fact the DORON family's marks, found on many early trade "boucheron" knives.

The manufacturing techniques and terms used for these knives was recorded by Bondaroy in 1763, when he closely observed the cutlery works at St. Etienne-.en-Forez and nearby Charnbon, France: (*Permission given by Timothy J. Kent's to publish excerpt from "Ft Pontchartrain at Detroit, Volumes I & II - A Guide to the Daily Lives of Fur Trade and Military Personnel, Settlers, and Missionaries at French Posts")

As with clasp knives, many records seem to indicate that "boucheron" knives came in only 3 sizes. (small, medium and large). Ken Hamilton had taken a picture from the Fort Ticonderoga collection to confirm this.

Noted in Saint-Pierre's accounts in Charles Nolan Lamarque's account book from 1 September 1735 to 3 September 1736, Montreal: ANQ-M: Livre de Charles Nolan Lamarque, 1727-29 et 1734-36, microfilm-4.

In the 1711 inventory of Cadillac's possessions at Ft. Pontchartrain it is noted : ²

From Rochefort to Mississipy 1701. Extracts from the certificates for the Provisions made in 1701 for the King's Service, and sent to Mississipy on His Majesty's vessel l'Inflame for the fort at Biloxy. By the Commissary General of the Navy, Jean Baptiste Guichard on 22 January, 1701. (Funds of the Colonies F1A 200)..."2 gross of butcher knives at 24 livres per gross”.

From the list of supplies furnished by Michel Gamelin, at the post of the Ouiatanon, September, 1746, we note:

Another invoice dating from May 19th, 1702 by Quebec city merchant Martel to be delivered to (Colonial) Labrador trader.⁶

It is also important to note the fact that some "boucheron" knives were in fact shipped with sheaths. (APQ - Inventaire d'une Coll. Dossier 397)⁶

Marie Gerin-LaJoie notes as well that a certains "voyageurs" purcharsed 6 "boucheron" knives from Monière on May 26, 1720 for 5s each.

Were "boucheron" knives manufactured with a one piece handle or two piece handle?

On the one hand, looking at the "boucheron" knife from the "l'hôtel de Sérent at Versailles", we notice the one piece boxwood handle with a 2 pin construction quite clearly. The handle must of been much longer judging from the amount of wood that the woodcarver would of needed in order to carve the head at the base of the handle. It is interesting to note that the tang seems somewhat smaller than the width of the handle from a side view profile.

Ken Hamilton, (blacksmith/knifemaker of "boucheron" knife reproductions) goes on to say :

Below is a picture of "boucheron" type knives found at Rock Island as well as part to a handle.⁴ Notice the that there seems to be three holes on the handle which would indicate a two piece handle held together with 3 pins, 2 to hold the blade in place and the remaining to secure the base of the handle.

Above : Author's tracing of a two section knife handle found from "Le Machault" shipwreck indicating that the knife would of had a two piece handle with 3 pins.

A belt knife with original wooden handle was found in the underwater search conducted at Double Rapids on the French River out of Lake Nipissing in 1961. The finds are now in the Royal Ontario Museum, Ontario, Canada. (Underwater finds in the French River, Doris K.Megill, Ontario Department of lands and forests, Ottawa, August, 1964). Note the very simple wood handle with 3 pin construction. The artifacts that were found are all dated late 1600's to mid 1700's.

I decided to email Mr. Macfie who was a very important participant in the underwater search conducted at Double Rapids in 1961 and asked him a few questions regarding an original wood handle from this search that he possesses in his personal collection. Here is the transcript of that email (April, 2004)

"... It has three rivet holes, the two nearest the blade end being just over one inch apart, and the third about 1 1//2 inches further along. (The handle was made in two halves, rather than being a solid piece that has been slotted to accept the root of the blade."

Picture of knife found in the underwater search conducted at Double Rapids on the French River out of Lake Nipissing in 1961. Notice the 3 pin holes on the handle. Two pin holes at the upper portion of the handle and one at the base. (Doris K.Megill, Underwater finds in the French River, Ontario Department of lands and forests, Ottawa, August, 1964)

There are however many references in the MMRP (Montreal Merchant Records) of "Cartouche knives" or "Couteaux cartouche/Couteaux à Cartouche". Would these be similar to the "boucheron" knives?

Here we have a an interesting reference to cartouche knives from the Archives de la Bastille : Ref.: PAC - MG 7 II (Archives de la Bastille) vol. 12148, fol. 101.

Supplied by Mr. Robert, of Saint-Etienne, to merchants Gradis & Fils of Bordeaux, Robert's invoice is dated January 23, 1751 and is contained in a file of the Archives de la Bastille relating to merchandise shipped by Gradis to Canada that same year.

We also find mentions of another type of knife called "Couteau à Gaine" or "Sheath Knife" in the MMRP.

Here is an extract from the outfits for the Illinois post, dated 1736 (Monière, vol. 4, p.768)⁶

In 1735, Messieurs Gatineau & Hamelin equpped for Michilimackinac and Rivière St-Joseph, purchase sheath-knives from the merchant Monière (MMR - Monière, vol. 4, p.393)⁶

All "boucheron" knives were marked as was the case with all French manufactured knives at the time. Timothy J. Kent goes on to say this about belt knife markings : "The stock of the Montreal outfitters Desauniers and De Brouage in May of 1741 included 636 small sheath knives with a horn grip made by Perrin, as well as 2,412 of these same knives in medium size by the cutlers Berte (Bertet) and Chapelon, plus 72 fine sheath knives by the cutler Bizaillon... in addition, Bizaillon 's work was represented by 102 fine sheath knives. Products from the shop of the latter cutler were supplied on numerous occasions by the Montreal outfitter Moniere to interior traders. For instance, 72 of his sheath knives were sent to the Rainy Lake post in 1741, while 24 of these with a grip of yellow wood were provided to another trader the following year"2

Below : Lead table with knifemaker's marks from Saint-Etienne area (1737) (Musée de Saint-Etienne).

Above: closeup of the tablet. Take note of the markings on the 2nd row, 2nd and 3rd from right. These seem to be both DORON markings confirming that DORON was in fact a knifemaker making knives in St.Etienne in 1737.

Here are a few sketches (tracings) of Fort Ticonderoga "Boucheron" knives. Most of these seem to be DORON knives judging from their markings. (Tracings by Ken Hamilton - Permission given by Ken Hamilton to reproduce.)

Above : "Boucheron" type knife blade. Marked "I C DORON" on two line. (Author's collection)

Above : Two "boucheron" type knives with replacement French boxwood handles. Bottom knife has DORON marking with (crown) + upside down glass/bottow/mallet + DORON. Top blade is stamped with a feather hallmark and marker's mark on two lines (too pitted to make out). (Author's collection)

Above : Dug condition boucheron knife blade with remnants of handle still in place. Tim Thomson Collection, Michigan.

Here is an example of a reproduction a the famous knife with sheath worn on the belt of a mannequin from l'hôtel de Sérent at Versailles (1786). This type of knife would be been used by the "coureur des bois" and traded to the Indians. French boxwood or beech wood would of most likely been used for the handle.

Knife with sheath, worn on the belt of a mannequin from l'hôtel de Sérent at Versailles (1786). The handle is an example of wood sculptural art that the Huron and Iroquois nations practiced. The belt is braided with leather strips and porcupine quills. The sheath is decorated with porcupine quills as well. The blade is metal and made in Europe. ...pendant les derniers temps de l'Ancien Régime, les "Cabinets de Curiosités" sous l'influence des philosophes du Siècle des Lumières se transforment en Cabinets d'Histoire Naturelle. Les peuples "sauvages" ne sont plus des curiosités mais des phénomènes naturels que l'on doit étudier. Dans cet esprit, le comte d'Artois, frère de Louis XVI, demande au marquis de Sérent, en 1783, de créer, à Versailles, un Cabinet d'Histoire Naturelle pour l'éducation de ses fils, les Enfants de la Maison de France. Ceci fut fait avec l'aide de Monsieur de Fayolles, commis au bureau des colonies d'Amérique, grand amateur de curiosités qui par ses relations avec les navigateurs avait pu recueillir de nombreux objets et qui vendit sa collection au comte d'Artois. On voyait dans ce nouveau Cabinet "un grand rassemblement... d'armes et d'habillements de divers peuples d'Amérique et d'Asie... en particulier un mannequin avec une tête en cire habillé de peaux et abrité sous un dais formé de trois peaux de cervidés peintes. Il était entouré par ses armes. Il portait la mention sauvage du Canada.
	Notice Doron’s mark with mallet and the crown.

Knife and sheath - Woodlands (Ottawa or Chippewa) (Sheath buckskin; dyed porcupine quill (red, yellow, blue and white); metal cones with red dyed horsehair. (Knife) trade knife marked "Doron"; wood Sheath : L. 21 cm: 8 in. W. 4.5 cm: 1 3/4 in. (Knife) L. 23 cm: 9 in. Ex Collection : Arthur Speyer, marked no. 1102; the knife is marked in black ink "A.U. Fd 72" and in white ink "Am.1785". Reference: Speyer no.116, p.78, and pl. 43 (sheath); no 83, p.66,and pl.31 (knife) W/12 *"Pleasing the spirits : a catalogue of a collection of American Indian art", Douglas C Ewing, New York, Ghylen Press, 1982.	Knife and sheath Eastern Woodlands (Huron or Mohawk) Sheath : buckskin: dyed porcupine quill (red, white, black , and yellow): white glass trade beads; metal cones with red dyed hair; rawhide. (L. 22.5 cm; 9 in. W. 6 cm; 2 1/4 in. Knife: trade knife marked Doron; porcupine quill (red, black and white). L. 22 cm; 0 in. Ex Collection "Various properties," sale, London, Sotherby's, 5 December 1972, lot 82. Reference: CF. Dockstader no.142, illus. W/13 *"Pleasing the spirits : a catalogue of a collection of American Indian art", Douglas C Ewing, New York, Ghylen Press, 1982.

Above : this blade was excavated from a site on lake George, NY that was used both by British rangers and French forces.

Above : "Boucheron" type knife with wood handle found at the Walker site (Ontario, Canada). "The single well preserved knife retains its original handle, but displays no identifying hallmark."

Bellow : Sheath knives attributed to the Mohawk Iroquois tribe (Canada). Possibly French "boucheron" knives.

Here you have various 18th century French table knives (Différents couteaux de table ). Notice the shape on some of the blades which are characterized by a back which tapers sharply at the blade tip.	French kitchen knives from the 18th century. (Couteaux de cuisine - XVIIIème siècle )
"L'art du coutelier" de Jacques Perret, maître-coutelier à Paris, en date de 1924.	"L'art du coutelier" de Jacques Perret, maître-coutelier à Paris, en date de 1924