Various types of French Trade Knives
With special thanks to Ken Hamilton
Over the course of the French regime in North America, many knives were sent to the interior for the trade. The "Montreal Merchant Record Project" lists many various types of fixed-blade knives. What is important is to try to associate the terminology of the time with known examples from private collections, specimens from various archeological digs as well as any existing surviving examples found in current museum collections.
In order to better understand the various styles of knives used at the time, it is important to classify each type according to the few descriptions we have in the MMRPs and recorded through various records in New-France.
Here is a list of the various types of trade knives other than the clasp knife type, "boucheron", "Couteau à Cartouche" and "Couteaux à gaine". These last four types of trade knives are featured under the "French Clasp knives" and "French Belt knives".
1. Couteaux du type Flamands / Flemish Type Knives
2. Couteaux de table /Table knives
3. Couteaux bariollé / Multicolored type knives
4. Couteaux de l'oraine (Loraine) / Loraine Knives
5. Couteaux "nouvelle-mode" - New style knife
6. Couteaux de vieux temps / Old-fashioned type Knives
7. Couteaux à la Daulphine / Daulphine Knives
9. Couteau de Rennes / Knife from Rennes
Couteaux du type Flamands / Flemish Type Knives
The word "Flamands" associated with this knife type generally refers to the Flanders region in northern France. In fact, "...numerous "Flemish knives" were used and distributed by the French from the 1670's on, some with sheaths. Flanders, from whence Flemish articles were derived was comprised of portions of northern France, western Belgium, and southwestern Holland.
Most of the specimens linked to the Flemish type of knife had one trait in common, the blade usually angles down towards the tip in a gradual or steep fashion, not unlike hawk-bill type blades which are found on some early French clasp knives.
Fougeroux de Bondaroy notes that sailor's knives were being produced in St.Etienne with a blade having a turned-down point in "Fougeroux de Bondaroy, L'Art du coutelier en ouvrages communs". The manufacturing techniques and terms used for these knives was recorded by Bondaroy in 1763, when he closely observed the cutlery works at St. Etienne-.en-Forez and nearby Chambon, France.
We can conclude that this "sailor's knife" was most likely the Flemish type knife produced in France. One distinct feature of the French manufactured Flemish type knife was the slender tang, molded wooden grip, and an iron ferrule.
In 1710, Le Prevost, a wholesale merchant in St. Malo, France, requested a permit to import into France from Holland 25 barrels of Flemish knives. (Memorandum by Sr. Le Prevost, addressed to the Board of Trade; see Bonnassieux, Pierre: Archives Nationales, Conseil de Commerce et Bureau du Commerce, 1700-1791, Paris, 1900.)1
Here is an extract from a list of goods ordered for Canada in 1697. (Source : PAC, MG 1, vol. 19-2, p.40)
In 1675, George Alets of Montréal owns 2 Flemish knives "deux Cousteaux flamands". (Inventaire des biens meubles & Immeubles de deffunt Georges Alets, 27e May 1675. Bénigne Basset, 1147. AJM)
(Below) Knives found in Holland (17th-18th century). Notice some of the common markings found on the blades.
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Flemish type knives were not only being manufactured in Flanders or Holland but also in the town of Thiers during the first half of the 18th century. Here we have a price liste of knives manufactured by Pierre Reynaud of Thiers. Take note of the mention of Flamand knives with bone handles "Une grosse couteaux flamands manche d'os".
Type 1: Flemish type knives with brass handle (Most likely traded by the Dutch)
It seems that the majority of Flemish type knives with brass handles found on early Iroquois sites were likely supplied by the Dutch from 1606 to 1664.
Above : Handle from a flemish knife found at the Marsh Site (1650-1670) in Ontario County New York (Picture courtesy of Michael Galban)
Dutch type knife found in Pennsylvania, on a Iroquois site (1625-1675). The handle is brass and represents a hunter with his musket.
Above: Part of an iron knife found in a Susquehannock site in Pennsylvania.
Above : 18th silver handle Dutch knife with hallmarks (Bredius Museum, Amsterdam)
Bronze handle of old knife representing a musketeer holding his musket
Manufacturer: unknown
Probable origin: North of France
Period: 17th century
Material: bronze
Dimensions: L 8.3, W 2.3
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: mode of acquisition unknown ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1898 (registered with the inventory)
Above: Part of an iron knife blade and brass handle from Fleming, N.Y.)
Above: Part of an iron knife found in a Susquehannock site in Pennsylvania showing two Flemish lovers in an affectionate attitude.
| Flemish type trade knife with brass handle (Pictures courtesy of R.Speelman collection). Permission given by R.Speelman to publish pictures. 7 3/4" overall, 4 1/2" blade, Susquehannock site, York County,Pa. |
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Copper handle of old knife representing a monk holding a rosery
Manufacturer: unknown
Probable origin: North of France
Period: 17th century
Material: copper
Dimensions: L. 7 cm, W. 2 cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: mode of acquisition unknown ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1898 (registered with the inventory)
Copper handle of old knife representing an intertwined man and woman
Manufacturer: unknown
Probable origin: North of France
Period: 16th century
Material: copper
Dimensions: L 8.3 cm, W 1.8 cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: gift ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1905
Ex Melle Boulet Elise collection
Copper knife handle representing a saint
Manufacturer: unknown
Provenience : Found in Thérouanne, France
Period: 17th century
Material: copper
Dimensions:L. 7.3 cm, W. 1.6 cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: gift ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1905
Belonged to Marquis de Touchet
Copper knife handle representing the Virgin and her child
Manufacturer: unknown
Provenience : Found in Thérouanne, France
Period: 17th century
Material: bronze
Dimensions: L. 8, l cm. W. 2.1cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: gift ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1898
Acquisition: 1898 (registered with the inventory)
Type 2: Flemish type knives with bone or wood handle, iron ferrule and iron ferrule (Most likely French in origin)
The French manufactured Flemish type knife seem to manufactured with a slender tang, molded wooden or bone grip, and an iron ferrule such as some of the specimens noted below.
Above : Top knife (Steel knife with bone handle, found in the town of Venice N.Y. in 1887. Length 8 1/2 ") Bottom knife (Steel knife with bone handle, from Scipioville, N.Y. The lenght is very slightly longer than the top knife)
Above: Knife from the Albany State Museum (Picture by Ken Hamilton) Length: 9 1/2"
Above: Steel knife with brass ferule and black hardwood handle. What is interesting is that the top of the blade displays notch designs. This knife was recovered from the wreck of the San Jose Y Las Animas which was one of the 1733 Spanish Plate Fleet lost in the middle Florida Keys area (there were 22 ships in the fleet and all were not lost). It was recovered in the 1970's.(Bureau of Archaeological Research, Florida Dept. of State)
Checked bone handle, from the Dann Site 1650-75, New York.
Method of hafting knives with cylindrical bone handle, employing a wooden plug. The naturally hollow inside of the bone had been filled with a wooden plug into which was inserted the tang of the rat-tail knife. This knife specimen was found on an Oneida site.
Here is a Flemish type knife located in France.
Old knife with engraved horn handle and iron ferrule
Manufacturer: unknown
Probable origin: North of France
Period: 15th - 17th century ?
Material: horn, iron
Dimensions: L. 23.1 cm, W. 2.9 cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: mode of acquisition unknown ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1898 (registered with the inventory)
Old knife with carved horn handle with downturned blade. This knife has quite a different type of handle construction, lacking the iron ferrule and one piece horn or wood handle. Can we then consider this a Flemish type knife solemnly based on the blade shape?
Manufacturer: unknown
Probable origin: North of France
Period: 15th - 17th century
Material: horn
Dimensions: L. 19 cm, W. 1.3 cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: mode of acquisition unknown ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1898 (registered with the inventory)
| Flemish type trade knife (Pictures courtesy of R.Speelman collection). Permission given by R.Speelman to publish pictures. 7 3/4" overall, 4 5/8" blade, Huron site, southern Illinois |
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| Flemish type trade knife (Pictures courtesy of R.Speelman collection). Permission given by R.Speelman to publish pictures. 9 1/2" overall, 5 1/8" blade, Seneca site, northwestern Pa. |
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| Flemish type trade knife (Pictures courtesy of R.Speelman collection). Permission given by R.Speelman to publish pictures. 7 7/8" overall, 4 1/2" blade, Seneca site, northwestern Pa. |
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Couteaux de table /Table knives
It is a fact that the Cardinal of Richelieu, shocked by the bad manners of Chancellor Séguier who used his knife to clean his teeth, prohibited the pointed blades of knives (Edict of Lille, 1669). The blades swelled and reached an exceptional length under Louis XIV. It is at the end of the century that one sees the appearance of earthenware handles (Moustiers) or tender porcelain ones (Saint-Cloud).
During the 18th century, the development of the manufactures of Sevres and Saxony puts this type of decoration à.la.mode. In 1764, Jean Gavet (cutler for the king, in Paris) uses for the first time a matrix to stamp silver handles, using a scale. We notice the appearance of knife handles made out of mother-of-pearl, ivory inlaid with silver or gold. During the second part of the 18th century, French knife handles take the shape of a "gun handle".
Here is an illustration from Fougeroux de Bondaroy, L'Art du coutelier en ouvrages communs, showing the different steps in manufacturing a kitchen knife. The manufacturing techniques and terms used for these knives was recorded by Bondaroy in 1763, when he closely observed the cutlery works at St. Etienne-.en-Forez and nearby Chambon, France.
At the time of his observations, Bondaroy noted the manufacture of five categories of fixed-blade knives, including table knives:
Table knives, with a blade entirely, of steel, without a bolster; and a grip of wood dyed red, black, or white, with three pins, 1.5 to 2 livres per dozen
Table knives, with a bolster; and a grip of wood or black sheep horn from Ireland, 3 to 7livres per dozen Knives [of higher quality] , with a well-finished blade and grip, with a grip of ebony or other wood from the Islands, 12 r6" 24 livres per dozen "
The Quebec outfitter Martel received from his wholeseller in La Rochelle, 72 knives of medium size with a boxwood handle and a blunt tip. Could it be that the knives ordered by Martel were manufactured in St.Etienne?
1702, June 30. Sale by P.Laurent, LaRochelle merchant to Quebec city merchant) *APQ - Inventaire d'une Coll. Dossier 397)
"In 1736, Monière sent 120 table knives costing 0.6 livre apiece to the Illinois post. . Two years later, he shipped 48 table knives to Ft. Ouiatenon; these versions...were valued at 0.38 livre apiece (MMR, Monière, Vol 4, pp. 754-763; N.A.C., MG 23/GIII 25: Microfilm M-848)."
In 1742, the inventory of the storehouse of François-Etienne Cugnet, Director of the Domaine d'Occident mentionned 72 table knives with bone grips. "these were divided into formal knife cases that each contained sixe knives (N.A.C., MG 1, C11A, Vol. 114-1, f. 147v, Inventory of the storehouse of François-Etienne Cugnet, Director of the Domaine d'Occident, 1742)
French kitchen knife from the mid 18th century. This knife with original handle was found during the Place Royal archaeological dig in Quebec city. The blade measures 7" and the handle measures 4".
Knife, 17th century
Bone and iron
Found at the site of the first farm built at Cap Tourmente, Québec, Canada.
The Saint-Cloud Manufactory in France, manufactured soft-paste porcelain made in the town of Saint-Cloud, from 1690 to 1766. Pierre Chicaneau began the manufacture, which passed by marriage to the family of Henri Trou (c. 1722 onward). Much of the porcelain, which was yellowish or creamy off-white in tone, was influenced by blanc de chine, or late Ming Chinese white porcelain. Many knives were produced during that period with Saint-Cloud porcelain handles such as the ones below. Notice that the shape of the blade is very similar to Bondaroy's examples (figure 17) of table knives.
French table knife with porcelain handle with polychrome Chinese decoration and pagodas in the Kakiemon taste. Silver ring. Middle of the 18th century. L 25 cm.
Saint-cloud knife with porcelain handle with cut sides with polychrome decoration of flowered vases and pagodas in the Kakiemon taste. Silver ring. Middle of the 18th century. L 27 cm
Saint-Cloud knife with earthenware handle with blue decoration. Silver ring. circa 1720. L 26 cm
French table knives (18th century)
The handle is slender and molded in a multi-faceted form. The decoration is typical of St Cloud porcelain, with simple, restrained, foliate decoration. The knife has a silver collar and a good steel blade - it is impressed with the maker's mark which is on two lines – only the last three letters are now clear – BER and ADO) with a pronounced, rounded end common in the eighteenth century.
Converted French table knife or Flemish type knife?
Native Americans attacked an English grain convoy during King Philip's War (1675-1676) in what is now South Deerfield, Massachusetts. They virtually wiped out the English soldiers and teamsters near a small stream that afterwards became known as Bloody Brook. One hundred years later, a local resident digging a well unearthed this knife on the site of the ambush. The knife is of French manufacture. It was probably obtained by a Native American during trade with the French. The wooden grip and iron pommel appear to be for a sword although they are in this case mounted on a knife blade. The pommel design is consistent with European small swords of the 1670-75 period.
Date: circa 1650 - 1675
Dimensions: L: 10.875 in., W: .875 in.
Old knife with carved horn handle (Kitchen knife?)
Manufacturer: unknown
Probable origin: North of France
Period: 15th - 17th century
Material: horn
Dimensions: L. 15.2 cm, W. 2.6 cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: mode of acquisition unknown ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1898 (registered with the inventory)
Old knife with carved horn handle (Kitchen knife?)
Manufacturer: unknown
Probable origin: North of France
Period: 15th - 17th century
Material: horn
Dimensions: L. 16 cm, W. 1.4 cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: mode of acquisition unknown ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1898 (registered with the inventory)
Old knife with carved horn handle (Kitchen knife?)
Manufacturer: unknown
Probable origin: North of France
Period: 15th - 17th century
Material: horn
Dimensions: L. 18 cm, W. 1.5 cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: mode of acquisition unknown ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1898 (registered with the inventory)
Old knife with carved horn handle (Kitchen knife?)
Manufacturer: unknown
Probable origin: North of France
Period: 15th - 17th century
Material: horn
Dimensions: L. 18.5 cm, W. 2.4 cm
Location: Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin, France
Status: mode of acquisition unknown ; Saint-Omer ; musée de l'hôtel Sandelin
Acquisition: 1898 (registered with the inventory)
Couteaux bariollé / Multicolored type knives
Notes : French version "Petit couteau bariollé" . Bariollé applies to English multicolored (sometimes striped in various and different colors), motley, variegated, many-hued, etc.
1702 , June 30 : supplied by LaRochelle merchant P.Laurent *APQ - Inventaire d'une Coll. Dossier 397)
2 gross - Small knives, multicolores (Petit couteau bariollé) @41 48 /gr.
Couteaux de l'oraine (Loraine) / Loraine Knives
In a 1741 invoice from Glasson & Chappeau for the Rainy Lake Post notes 1 dozen knives "de l'oraine" or from Loraine. Could it be that these knives had a particular style typical of the Loraine region?
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1741 - Invoice : Glasson & Chappeau (Rainy Lake post). *MMRPs
Couteaux "nouvelle-mode" - New style knife
We can see from the merchant records dating as early as 1738 that there seems to be an references to a "new style" of knife. There is no indications as to the type of knife it is as well as any mentions to other details such as knife makers, material etc. We can only speculate that this new style of knife was probably quite popular in France at the time.
1738, Nov. 14 (Extract from fur trade invoice)(MMR - Monière, vol. 8, p. 59 PAC - MG 23/GIII 25 : M849)
1739 - BERIT : Jean Groux junior (MMR - Monière, vol. 5, p. no. missing. PAC - MG 23/GIII 25 : M848)
1739, Aug. 14 (Extract from outfit for Green Bay post) *MMR - Monière, vol. 8, p. 110 PAC - MG 23/GIII 25 : M849)
4 dozs - New style knives @ 61/dz.
Couteaux de vieux temps / Old-fashioned type Knives
In 1735, there is a mentions of an old-fashioned type of knife.
1735, July 14 (Sold to an engagé - MMR - Monière, vol. 4, p. 602 PAC - MG 23/GIII 25 : M848)
1 Knife, old-fashioned type (Couteau de vieux temps) 0" 5" 0"
Couteaux à la Daulphine / Daulphine Knives
In 1693, the merchant Jacques Le Ber owns 15 dozens Daulphine knives "quinze douzaine de Cousteaux à la Daulphine". (Inventaire Des Biens Meubles et Immeubles de la Communauté d'Entre Le sieur Jacques Le Ber Et Dame Jeanne Le Moyne Sa feme'. 1er décembre 1693 au 6 décembre 1694. Bénigne Basset, 2259. AJM)
The French dagger generally had to cutting edges as to compared to most other types of knives used in the trade. The blade was in most cases symetrical in shape and quite short resembling a very short sword. All dagues had a quillon which were two projecting extensions on the top part of the handle, partly acting as a guard.
It is interesting to note that the only reference to daggers being shipped as trade goods in the MMRPs are from ones manufactured in the St.Lawrence valley.
"An entry in the 1731 ledger of the Montreal outfitter Monière noted that the he paid the smith Brunet 20 livres that year "for making daggers"1 (MMR, Monière, Vol. 3, p. 108; N.A.C., MG 23/GIII 25: Microfiche M-848)
In 1736, the smith Lacombe was paid 12 livres for making six daggers for Monière's stock of goods, at a rate of 2 livres per unit."1 (MMR, Monière, Vol. 3, p. 781; N.A.C., MG 23/GIII 25: Microfiche M-848)
In 1746, "the smith Corbin produced for Monière 100 "pointed knives with two cutting edges," for a fee of 1.5 livres apiece."1
Dagger, from a native site on Menominee River, missing handle - lenght 8". (Timothy J. Kent collection). Drawing done by present author.
Dagger with quillon (Pictures courtesy of R.Speelman collection). Permission given by R.Speelman to publish picture. 9 1/2" overall, 5 1/2" blade, Iroquois site, Tioga Point, Pa.
Couteau de Rennes / Knife from Rennes
In the spring 1663, Simon Duprez of Montréal owns a large knife from Rennes "Un grand Cousteau de Rennes). (Inventaire des biens meubles du défunt Simon Deprez dit Berry. 23 May 1663. Bénigue Basset, 266. AJN)
1. Timothy J. Kent, "Ft Pontchartrain at Detroit, Volumes I & II", Silver Fox Enterprises, 2001.
2. Montreal Merchant's Records Project reel #1 excerpts and English notes/translations by Marie Gerin-LaJoie (microfilm copy of M496 Montreal Merchants Records Project, Research Files, 1971-1975, 1 roll - Copy Services, Minnesota Historical Society Library)
3. Hagerty, Gilbert, "The Iron Trade Knife in Oneida Territory". Pennsylvania Archaeologist 33(1-2)93-114, 1963
4. SÉGUIN, Robert-Lionel. Les ustensiles en Nouvelle-France. Éditions Leméac, Montréal, 1972.
